The Shepherd of Hermas stands as an important witness to early Christianity in Rome in the mid-second century.1 It reveals a form of popular early Christianity that includes a distinctly Jewish influence as it was lived out in the lives of ordinary people.2 Schaff observes that the book has been distinguished in its literary form from all other writings of the apostolic fathers and comments how modern readers have often compared it with Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress and Dante's Divina Commedia.3 In this examination of The Shepherd of Hermas this essay will seek to explain the contents and theology of this popular early Christian work, discuss and trace its position throughout the history of the Church, and finally identify the reasons why it was eventually excluded from the New Testament canon.

The Contents and Theology of The Shepherd

The Shepherd4 is a work of considerable length that can be divided into three primary sections. These are as follows: five visions; twelve mandates; and ten parables (or as they are often referred to 'similitude's').5 Cross feels that these divisions are nevertheless somewhat artificial on account of the entire contents being of the same texture throughout.6 With regard to the visions, the overall theme is an exhortation to repentance and encouragement to remain faithful despite the pressures of persecution.7 Schaff observes that it is difficult to decide whether Hermas actually experienced the visions, imagined himself to be having them, or even invented them as a means whereby he could deliver effective instruction.8 The twelve mandates are a summary of what is required of a Christian in his or her life of faith; and the third and longest section, the ten parables, unite the teachings of both the visions and mandates and deal specifically with areas relating to practical and moral concerns.9

There are various areas of theological interest in the contents of The Shepherd which will be highlighted for discussion. In the mandates there can be found one of the earliest presentations of what was later to be called 'the discernment of spirits'.10 The background to this belief is based on two suppositions. Firstly, is the belief that both good and evil spirits are active within the consciousness of an individual. Secondly, human behaviour can follow a good path or an evil path.11 With this background in mind the concept of the discernment of spirits in The Shepherd can be better appreciated. Mandate 5-6 exhorts the believer to be patient so that the indwelling Holy Spirit will not be overcome by an evil spirit.12 If, however, a person in whom the Holy Spirit dwells becomes prone to anger an evil spirit takes control and the Holy Spirit seeks to leave.13 It is at this point that Hermas' discernment of spirits comes into operation. An individual will know which spirit is present and active simply by the desires and impulses that are dominant within their own heart. Good impulses imply the work of the good Spirit while bad impulses imply the activity of an evil spirit. When the latter emotions are in operation a person is encouraged to shun the evil spirit and make room in his or her heart for the good Spirit.14 Osiek reveals the significance of Hermas' teaching by noting that he is one of the first spiritual teachers in Christian history to indicate that the presence of the Holy Spirit or an evil spirit can be discerned from an individual's emotional condition.15 Another area of theology in the contents of The Shepherd that is worthy of being highlighted is the indisputable legalism that permeates throughout the visions, mandates, and parables. This present writer is not alone in his observation of how the book seems to have a tendency to be somewhat legalistic and void of the justification that one finds in the apostle Paul's writings (e.g.. Rom. 3:21-26; 4:1-9; Gal. 3:24). For example, Gonzalez has also noticed how it seems that for Hermas Christianity is a series of precepts that must be followed.16 Likewise Scahff observes how Hermas' primary emphasis is on practice and that he appears to view Christianity as a new law.17 Schaff goes as far as to suggest that Hermas has no idea of justifying faith and that he dwells on the works of an individual rather than on God's grace. Schaff summarises: "In a word, his Christianity is thoroughly legalistic and ascetic, and further off from the evangelical spirit than any other book of the apostolic fathers."18 An example of the legalism of The Shepherd can be seen in the following scenario: After being presented with the twelfth and final mandate Hermas says: "...these commandments are great and good and glorious, and are able to gladden the heart of the man who is able to keep them. But I do not know if these commandments can be kept by man, for they are very hard."19 After saying these things the Shepherd, the individual who speaks with Hermas from the fifth vision onwards, tells him that if he is of the opinion that the commandments are difficult then they will indeed be arduous to keep and informs him of the following: "But now I say to you: if you do not keep them, but neglect them, you will not have salvation, nor will your children nor your family, since you have already decided for yourself that these commandments cannot be kept by man".20 Salvation in The Shepherd therefore appears to be one of works and the ability of an individual to keep various commandments rather than justification in Christ alone.

Another area of theological interest in the contents of The Shepherd concerns the Person of Jesus Christ. Parable 9 appears to identify "the Son of God" with the Holy Spirit before the incarnation, and seems to be stating that the Trinity came into being only after Christ's ascension into heaven.21 Osiek also points out how the manes 'Jesus' or 'Christ' never appear in the book.22 Instead, the words 'Son of God' appear (most frequently in the similitude's).23 On account of the absence of the names Jesus and Christ Osiek observes how some have doubted whether the work should even be considered as Christian.24 But despite the doubts of some there is ample indication that it is indeed a Christian writing. This is seen most notably in the parables about the Son of God and the references to baptism.25

Further difficulties can be discerned in the contents of The Shepherd on account of the fact that the book appears to contradict itself in some instances. One very obvious inconsistency that this present writer has observed in the book is that on numerous occasions the Shepherd specifically condemns the sin of anger, calling it "foolish, fickle, and senseless."26 Those who fall into the sin of anger (as discussed earlier) risk the Holy Spirit leaving them and they in turn become a dwelling place for evil spirits.27 An "angry temperamental outburst or bitterness..." is a sign that an evil spirit is at work in a person.28 Furthermore, an angry temper is among one of the sins that grieve the Holy Spirit.29 However, despite the Shepherd's warnings against the sin of anger, when Hermas expresses some doubt as to his ability to keep the commandments that have been revealed to him the Shepherd himself rebukes Hermas in what clearly appears to be an outburst of extreme anger. Hermas gives his own account of this: "He [the Shepherd] said these things to me very angrily, which confused me and I feared him greatly, for his appearance was changed so that a man could not endure his anger."30 It is only after the Shepherd sees how distressed Hermas is by his anger that he becomes more composed and his anger subsides.31

In Hermas' dialogue with the Shepherd, among the many instructions that are given to him, the issue of post-baptismal sin is discussed. It is revealed to Hermas that anyone who sins after baptism is given the opportunity to repent only once.32 Any sin that is committed afterwards is viewed extremely dismally and the implication is given that such an individual will no longer be able to obtain forgiveness.33 Various interpretations have been applied to this doctrine of penance for post- baptismal sins. For example, it is possible to view Hermas as one who is compromising the area of Christian repentance, one who acts as a reformer and exhorts the Church to holy living, or even one who is of such intense eschatological anticipation that he believes there will be no possibility of further repentance.34

The Place of The Shepherd Throughout the History of the Church

Concerning the position of The Shepherd throughout the history of the Church there can be no dispute as to the widespread popularity of the book, especially among the early Christian believers. The Shepherd has been called "one of the most popular Christian texts in the first centuries of the Church."35 Osiek believes that one of the reasons why the book endured such long popularity was on account of its emphasis on living the Christian life in a positive and whole hearted way.36 It also appears that part of the popularity of the Shepherd originates from its simplicity.37 Even though Streeter feels that when the book is read in large quantities it is "distinctly tedious" he also recognises that there is probably no other document which better reflects the "simplicity and genuine piety of the rank and file of the average church members in the sub-apostolic age."38 Likewise, Schaff, like Streeter, feels that the contents of the book can be somewhat monotonous and repetitious, also observes that it is "animated by a pure love of nature and an ardent zeal for doing good."39 There can therefore be no doubt that the above observances partly explain the phenomenal, and unquestionable popularity that the book enjoyed in the first few centuries of the Church by the common believer, despite the later frowns of synods and the reproaches of theologians.40

It would appear that no product of post-apostolic literature has undergone a greater change in public esteem.41 Although The Shepherd enjoyed great popularity in the early history of the Church, with many even regarding it as Scripture (as will be discussed below) the general consensus of opinion eventually designated the book as useful but not inspired. Schaff describes how The Shepherd was therefore "...a book for the time, but not for all times.42

When one examines the statements made by some of the earliest Church fathers it is clear that many were of the opinion that The Shepherd was an authoritative work. For example, both Irenaeus (bishop of Lyons in 177 A.D.) and Clement of Alexandria (born 150 A.D.) cite The Shepherd as Scripture.43 Likewise, Cyprian, born to pagan parents early in the third century but converted to Christianity about 246 A.D., and eventually rose to the position of bishop of Carthage, cites The Shepherd as divine Scripture.44 Hippolytus of Rome (170-235 A.D.), whom Bruce calls considers as the greatest scholar of his age in the west, quotes The Shepherd in his writings and also The Didache and The Letter of Barnabas.45 Bruce also observes that Origen (185-254 A.D.) felt that The Shepherd of Hermas, along with The Didache and The Letter of Barnabas, should be considered as Scripture. Nevertheless, it appears that despite Origin's initial acceptance of these works as authoritative writings, after he moved to Caesarea and discovered that these books were not accepted as authoritative writings, he apparently exercised greater reserve towards them.46 With specific regard to Origin's comments on The Shepherd, Schaff explains that he recognised that there were others in the Church who judged the book less favourably than himself.47

Even though The Shepherd enjoyed widespread acceptance as an inspired writing by many in the early Church there were some who not only viewed the book as being 'less favourable' than Origin but went as far as being in hostile opposition to it. Unquestionably, the most vocal opponent of The Shepherd in the early Church was Tertullian (160-220 A.D.). On account of his extreme moral convictions, in later life, Tertullian became involved with the strict sect of the Montanists. Consequently, he came to believe the teaching that serious sins after baptism were unforgivable.48 This belief therefore led Tertullian to charge The Shepherd with being too lax in its approach to repentance and even goes as far as referring to it as the "Shepherd of the adulterers".49 He designates the book as apocryphal, and rejects it with contempt, as favouring anti- Montanistic opinions.50 Nevertheless, Crombie observes that in his words of criticism Tertullian unknowingly reveals that it was regarded by many in the Church as Scripture.51

By the fourth century it appears that The Shepherd, along with many other books that had been disputed, was gradually beginning to be separated from the books that would form the New Testament canon. Church historian, Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea from 314 to his death in 339, lists three categories by which to distinguish the various writings in existence in the early Church. These are as follows: Those that are universally acknowledged and without dispute; those that are disputed; and the spurious.52 For Eusebius, The Shepherd falls without any hesitation into the third category as a work that should be included among other spurious works as The Acts of Paul, The Apocalypse of Peter, The Epistle of Barnabus, and The Teachings of the Apostles.53 Nevertheless, Eusebius also recognised that while some excluded The Shepherd from the accepted books others still regarded it as quite an important and significant writing especially for those who were in need of instruction in the rudimentary elements of the faith.54 Furthermore, he also recognises that some of the most ancient of writers refer to it and that it was often publicly read in churches.55

Even though Eusebius placed The Shepherd among the spurious writings it is evident that during his day the book was still enjoying widespread popularity and was still considered by some as having equal, or at the least near equal authority with other New Testament writings. This is illustrated in the Codex Sinaiticus, dated at around the middle of the fourth century, and contains The Shepherd of Hermas and The Epistle of Barnabas at the end of a complete New Testament.56 Kenyon observes how both books enjoyed almost equal authority with the New Testament for a long period of time (clearly apparent from their inclusion in the Codex Sinaiticus) but were nevertheless eventually excluded from the canon.57

In the year 367, in his Easter Letter, Athanasius writes of the books that the church have accepted as having divine canonical status out of a concern to distinguish them from the many apocryphal and non-canonical books that were in circulation.58 With this concern in mind Athanasius specifically lists the 27 books of the New Testament as alone being authoritative writings which he solemnly warns that no man should add to or take away from.59 In his letter Athanasius also addresses other popular books that he recognises as writings that the early leaders in the Church encouraged new converts to read for instruction but which should be identified as not belonging to the canon. The Shepherd is mentioned as belonging to this category of books along with other non-canonical writings.60 Even though in his Easter Letter Athanasius clearly designated The Shepherd as outside the inspired canon he freely quotes from it throughout his writings and letters and even calls it a "...most edifying book..."61

It would seem that Athanasius' words carried considerable significance because by the end of the fourth century and throughout the fifth century The Shepherd loses much of its popularity and respect within the Church. Jerome (about 345- 420 A.D.) categorises The Shepherd, along with other books, as not belonging to the canon;62 and Schaff observes that Ambrose (339-397 A.D.) and Augustine (354-430 A.D.) simply seem to ignore it.63 However, it was with the decree of Pope Gelasius I (about 500 A.D.) which condemned the book as apocryphal that The Shepherd apparently fell into entire neglect.64 This is illustrated by the fact that after its condemnation the Greek text even disappeared for a number of centuries.65 It was only in the middle of the nineteenth century, when the Greek text of The Shepherd re-emerged unexpectedly that a renewed interest in it was awakened among scholars of early Christianity.66 Today The Shepherd is no longer given the high esteem with which some of the early Christians considered it but instead it is regarded as a work of antiquarian interest in a similar way to the pictures and sculptures of the catacombs.67

Reasons for the Eventual Exclusion of The Shepherd from the New Testament Canon. Kelly observes that while the broad outline of the New Testament canon was settled by the end of the second century, different localities continued to maintain their different traditions, and some places, such as Alexandria in Origen's time, appear to have been less partial to a set canon than others.68 It appears that a process gradually came into operation in the early Church whereby such popular books as The Shepherd were eventually separated from the writings that the Church recognised as being truly inspired. Kelly explains this by identifying the main features that eventually came to prevail in distinguishing between the authoritative books and books, such as The Shepherd, that were in due time excluded.69 It appears that unless a book could be shown to have been written by an apostle, or at least have the authority of an apostle behind it, it was rejected, regardless of how edifying or popular it may have been.70 Kelly mentions The Shepherd as being among the books that "hovered for a long time on the fringe of the canon, but in the end failed to secure admission" because it lacked the indispensable stamp of apostolic authorship.71 Some of the books which were later included (Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 Johns, Jude, Revelation) had to wait a considerable time before achieving universal recognition. However, by gradual stages, the Church in both East and West arrived at a common mind as to what writings were truly inspired and those that should be excluded.72

In agreement with the conclusions of Kelly, exclusion from the accepted and inspired books of the New Testament on the grounds that a writing could not be presented as an apostolic work is also seen as recorded in the Muratorian Fragment. Dated at about the end of the second century, the Muratorian Fragment specifically mentions The Shepherd as being a book that was excluded because "it was written very recently, in our times by Hermas while his brother Pius was sitting in the chair [i.e. was bishop] of the city of Rome."73 Smith observes that by the criteria of The Shepherd being outside the time period of the apostles a very popular an exceptional work was excluded from the canon.74 Even though the book failed the test of apostolic authorship, it was still not totally discarded at this time for the Fragment further describes that the book was "...worthy to be read [in the Church] but not to be included in the number of prophetic or apostolic writings."75

In summery and conclusion it can be said that The Shepherd of Hermas is a book that gives interesting insight into the life of early Christianity in the second century. Although the contents of The Shepherd is certainly not without its theological difficulties this present writer believes, in fairness to the book, that this could be partly due to the fact that Hermas, along with other early Christians were still grappling with many of the finer points of their belief structure, some of which (such as the doctrine of Christ) the Church was still in the process of working out in the fourth century. As to the popularity of The Shepherd there can be no doubt that it was widely accepted among the early Christian congregations, many of whom regarded it as Scripture. Even for those who did not elevate the book to such an esteemed position it was still often referred to throughout their writings and publicly read in the Church. Despite the overall early popularity of the book, by the end of the fourth century, with Athanasius' Easter Letter containing a list of the twenty seven inspired books of the New Testament, and the exclusion of such books as The Shepherd, it appears that the book lost considerable respect. It was not, however, until Pope Gelasius I condemned the book around 500 A.D. that it seemed to fall into entire neglect. It appears that the reason why The Shepherd eventually fell from its celebrated position to one of entire neglect was primarily because it failed the criteria of apostolic authorship.

1 J.B. Lightfoot and J.R. Harmer, The Apostolic Fathers, 2nd. ed. (Leicester: Apollos, 1989), The Shepherd of Hermas, introduction, 189.

2 C. Osiek, "An Early Tale That Almost Made it Into the New Testament." Bible Review. October, 1994, 54.

3 P. Schaff, History of the Christian Church, Vol. II (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1976), 680.

4 For the sake of clarification, when the book The Shepherd of Hermas is being referred to the title will appear in italics (i.e.. The Shepherd). This is to differentiate it from the individual "the Shepherd", or the "angel of repentance", who first introduces himself to Hermas in Vision 5.1-7 and dialogues with him throughout the book.

5 Lightfoot and Harmer, 190.

6 F.L Cross, The Early Christian Fathers (London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd., 1960), 24.

7 J.L. Gonzalez, A History of Christian Thought, Vol. 1 (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1970), 87.

8 Schaff, 680-681.

9 Gonzalez, 87.

10 Osiek, 51.

11 Ibid. Osiek points out how this ethical dualism appears in both Jewish and Christian writings in such writings as the Community Rule among the Dead Sea Scrolls (1QS 3.13-4.26); the Jewish Testament of Asher; Paul's Letter to the Galatians (5:17-24); the Didache; and the Letter of Barnabas. Osiek points out how all these writings lay a foundation for the discernment of spirits by speaking of the possibility that human conduct can go one of two ways and use this common belief for moral exhortation to act righteously and avoid evil.

12 Ibid., 52.

13 Ibid.

14 Ibid.

15 Ibid.

16 Gonzalez, 89.

17 Schaff, 684.

18 Ibid.

19 Mandate 12.3.4.

20 Mandate 12.3.6.

21 Parable 9. As quoted by F.L. Cross (ed.), Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (London: Oxford University Press, 1974), 641.

22 Osiek, 54. Osiek notes that the only exception to this is that "the word Christ' appears once in an errant manuscript variant."

23 Ibid.

24 Ibid.

25 Ibid.

26 Mandate 5.2.4.

27 Mandate 5.2.6-8.

28 Mandate 6.2.5.

29 Mandate 10.2.1-6.

30 Mandate 12.4.1.

31 Mandate 12.4.2.

32 Mandate 4.3.1-7.

33 Mandate 4.3.6.

34 Gonzalez, 88.

35 Osiek, 49.

36 Ibid., 54.

37 B.H. Streeter, The Primitive Church (London: Macmillan and Co. Ltd., 1930), 203.

38 Ibid.

39 Schaff, 681.

40 Streeter, 203-204.

41 Schaff, 690.

42 Ibid.

43 Streeter, 208.

44 Against Dice-Players, 2 (where Similitude 9.31.5 is quoted). As quoted by F.F. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture (Glasgow: Chapter House Ltd., 1988), 185.

45 Ibid., 178. Although Hippolytus quotes these books on occasion throughout his writings Bruce believes he is not treating them as Scripture.

46 Ibid., 66.

47 Schaff, 691.

48 D.F. Wright, (T. Dowley ed.) The Lion Handbook of the History of Christianity (Oxford: Lion Publishing, 1990), 87.

49 Lightfoot and Harmer, 189. 50 F. Crombie, introductory note to the Pastor of Hermas, The Pastor of Hermas, The Anti-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 2. In The Sage Digital Library, Vol. 1-4, 13.

51 Ibid.

52 Bruce, 198.

53 Ibid., 199.

54 Eusebius, The Church History of Eusebius, Nicene and post-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 1, in the Sage Digital Library, Vol.1-4, 232.

55 Ibid.

56 F. Kenyon, Our Bible and the Ancient Manuscripts (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1948), 131.

57 Ibid.

58 Athanasius, Select Writings and Letters of Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, second series Vol. 4, Letter XXXIX. In The Sage Digital Library, Vol. 1-4, 1312-1313.

59 Athanasius, Letter XXXIX, 1313-1314.

60 Ibid.

61 Athanasius, Select Writings, 279.

62 Jerome, Letters and Select Works, The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, second series, vol. 6. In The Sage Digital Library, Vol. 1-4, 1035.

63 Schaff, 691.

64 Ibid.

65 Ibid.

66 Ibid.

67 Ibid.,681.

68 J.N.D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines, fifth ed (London: A & C Black, 1989), 59.

69 Ibid., 60.

70 Ibid.

71 Ibid.

72 Ibid., 59-60.

73 M.A. Smith, From Christ to Constantine (London: IVP, 1971), 65-66. It should be noted however, that because the Muratorian Fragment originated in Rome it should not be surprising that it excludes The Shepherd. Schaff observes that although the Alexandrian Fathers held The Shepherd in high esteem, in Rome it never achieved the same respect. Schaff, 691.

74 Smith, 66.

75 F.F. Bruce, The New Testament Documents Are They Reliable? (London: IVP, 1943), 23.

Athanasius, Select Writings and Letters of Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, second series Vol. 4. in The Sage Digital Library, Vol. 1-4.

Bruce, F.F. The Canon of Scripture. Glasgow: Chapter House Ltd., 1988.

. The New Testament Documents Are They Reliable? London: IVP, 1943.

Crombie, F. The Pastor of Hermas, The Anti-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 2. in The Sage Digital Library, Vol. 1-4.

Cross, F.L (ed.) Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. London: Oxford University Press, 1974.

. The Early Christian Fathers. London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd., 1960.

Dowley, T. (ed.) The Lion Handbook of the History of Christianity. Oxford: Lion Publishing, 1990.

Eusebius, The Church History of Eusebius, Nicene and post-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 1, in The Sage Digital Library, Vol.1-4.

Gonzalez, J.L. A History of Christian Thought, Vol. 1. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1970.

Jerome, Letters and Select Works, The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, second series, Vol. 6. in The Sage Digital Library, Vol. 1-4, 1035.

Kelly, J.N.D. Early Christian Doctrines, fifth ed. London: A & C Black, 1989.

Kenyon, F. Our Bible and the Ancient Manuscripts. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1948.

Lightfoot, J.B. and Harmer, J.R. The Apostolic Fathers, 2nd. ed. Leicester: Apollos, 1989.

Osiek, C. "An Early Tale That Almost Made it Into the New Testament." Bible Review. October, 1994.

Schaff, P. History of the Christian Church, Vol. II. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1976.

Smith, M.A. From Christ to Constantine. London: IVP, 1971.

Streeter, B.H. The Primitive Church. London: Macmillan and Co. Ltd., 1930.